Akathisia

• Motor restlessness, such as pacing, fidgeting, and toe tapping, or a sense of inner restlessness, such as an uneasy feeling
• Probably due to dopamine blockade in the prefrontal area (Silvers and Yablon, 1996); may also be caused by gabapentin, an anticonvulsant which has been prescribed for pain in TBI patients (Childers and Holland, 1997)
• May be associated with dysphoria or a sensation of pain or burning
• Possible treatment includes movement, amantadine, beta-adrenergic blockers, or benzodiazepines

Ataxia

• Irregular, discoordinated movements, probably due to axonal injury, that can appear within minutes of the injury
• Treatment includes weighting utensils, coordination activities, and beta-adrenergic blockers, acetazolamide, phthalazinol, thyrotropin-releasing hormone, choline, or lecithin

Athetosis

• Slow, continuous, writhing movements of the limbs or axial musculature
• Treatment includes venterolateral thalamotomy, stereotactic lesioning of the dentate nucleus, and electrical stimulation of the anterior cerebellum

Ballism

• Large-amplitude flinging or flailing movement due to lesions in the basal ganglia
• Usually unilateral and called hemiballism
• Treatment includes anticonvulsant therapy, such as valproic acid, and stereotactic thalamotomy

Chorea

• Rapid, involuntary, irregular, and purposeless movement that flows from one part of the body to another, due to lesions in the basal ganglia
• Onset is immediate or weeks, months, or years postinjury
• Treatment includes anticonvulsant therapy, such as valproic acid and phenobarbital, and stereotactic deconstruction of part of the cerebellum dentate nucleus.